The Educational Theory of Maria Montessori (Synopsis 2)

Analyst: Jill Davis

RETURN
5/11/08
 

Introduction

Born on August 21, 1870 in Chiaravelle (Ancona) Italy, Maria Montessori is most recognized for her method of education. In addition to her role as an educator, Montessori, a devout Catholic, was a physician, philosopher, and humanitarian .[1] The first woman to graduate from the University of Rome’s La Sapienza Medical School, she was interested in working with mentally retarded children. A speech she gave about her ideas of instructing the disabled impressed the Italian Minister of Education, who offered her the position of director of the Scuola Ortofrencia. [3] Here, she used her theories to help children who were mentally challenged. When the “defective” children in her class scored above average on State examinations, she became even more confident in the validity of her methods. [4]

  Her success at Scuola Ortofrencia opened up more opportunities for her to offer her methods of teaching to other children. She opened a school called Casa dei Bambini, or Children’s House, where she had a child care center and aided the children in what she called “spontaneous self-development,” where the children learned autonomously through their senses and the environment. [5] Due to her success in Italy, she was asked to bring her methods to India. Here she started courses called the Indian Montessori Training Courses, which allowed for her methods of teaching to spread throughout India. [6]

  By 1913 Montessori’s methods were growing in popularity around the world. Some schools in North America grew extremely interested in adopting her methods. (The American Montessori Society was established in 1960. [7])

  Mussolini, the Italian Fascist leader, who was angered by Montessori’s refusal to abide by his principles of making the children into soldiers, exiled her from the country. Montessori moved to Spain, where she lived until the Spanish Civil War began in 1936. She lived most of the remainder of her life in The Netherlands, where the Association Montessori Internationale headquarters exists. [8]

  After years of educating hundreds of children, she died in 1952. Her lectures, writings, and established programs spread over the world. Her methods remain popular and successful today. [9]

I. Theory of Value: What knowledge and skills are worthwhile learning? What are the goals of education?

“In the Montessori view of education, the purpose of education is to serve as an aid to life.” [10] Montessori wanted to help her children grow intellectually and socially, to develop character, to be disciplined, and to enjoy freedom. [11] In a Montessori school, children must learn through work and hands-on activities, rather than through listening, where the material may only be stored in the short-term memory. [12] In many traditional public schools today, children are directed to complete problems in workbooks in order to ‘learn’ the information through repetitive drill; however, this process allows for the knowledge to be stored only temporarily. There is a marked difference between knowledge and understanding, and the Montessori Method, unlike others, allows for the children’s understanding of material through hands-on interaction with tools and their surroundings.

In a Montessori school, children are encouraged to learn more than just the basic curriculum. They are stimulated to enhance the development of their motor skills, their senses, their ability to think, their consciousness of emotions, their use of language, their ability to contribute and interact within a group, and their ability to make appropriate, beneficial decisions. [13] This aspect of the Montessori Method seems logical because, in life, people need more than the basics of reading, writing, and math; they need to develop skills outside of intellectual development.

In schools that are run like factories, children do not receive as much freedom, as in a Montessori school, to enhance all areas of development. Rather, they must abide by a structured schedule. The Montessori schools, in comparison, have structure in their goals but leave the children with the freedom to explore and grow in their areas of weakness. In a Montessori school, children learn to become autonomous. They gain responsibility because they become self-driven. Montessori also believed that the children must be intrinsically motivated. [14] It seems that Montessori would not accept her students to simply do their work to receive a reward because they are most likely acquiring very little understanding of the material. As Montessori emphasized, it is essential for children to find intrinsic motivation in their learning. [15] With this, the children must find interest in their work and become autonomous so that they can motivate themselves.

One may view a Montessori school as a realistic method of education for a child’s future. The students do not go through the a routine of repetition and drill every day; rather, they learn moral lessons, social skills, and how to deal with their emotions. [16] Additionally, they gain intellectual knowledge through experimentation, instead of drill. The Montessori schools offer a wide variety of subjects that interest the students and prepare them for life outside of schooling. Some of these subjects include dance, sewing, carpentry, astronomy, math, history, etc. [17]

Educators and parents must guide children toward “normalization,” which Montessori defined as the ability to function appropriately in the environment. If a child reaches “normalization,” he or she will be well-rounded and capable of achieving his or her goals. [18] Having more choices and opportunities in school allows the children to be better prepared for their futures. [19]

II. Theory of Knowledge: What is knowledge? How is it different from belief? A lie?

  Montessori presented knowledge as an “integrated whole,” where she highlighted conceptual relationships amongst the different branches of learning. [20]

  Knowledge is acquired through experience and experiment. Children learn through interacting with their environment and others. [21] One might say that a belief is an idea based on substantial evidence; however, it is not a concrete fact or idea. A lie may be defined as a fabrication of detail. It seems that both beliefs and lies are not acquired through interaction with the environment; however, according to Montessori, knowledge or true understanding depends entirely on experimenting and observing. [22]

Perhaps, most importantly, Montessori viewed the acquisition of knowledge as the responsibility of the child; only some help, such as stimulation from the parent or teacher is necessary. [23]

III. Theory of Human Nature: What is a human being? How does it differ from other species?

For almost fifty years, Montessori labored to find ways to emphasize the importance of independence in one’s development. [24] It seems that prior to this notion, Montessori believed people relied too much on what others expected of them. For instance, a parent may place restrictions on his or her children in terms of their futures, such as choosing a particular area of study for their children. Montessori believed that no one should interrupt the individual’s process of development. [25] Also, perhaps, people did not take action in their learning; rather, they read books and memorized information. According to the Montessori Method of Learning, children must interact with their environment in order to learn. [26] Montessori believed that no person can fulfill his or her expectations because expectations are limitless. [27] One would believe that Montessori concluded that creation is the means to understanding knowledge and oneself, which she believed could only be achieved through the children of the world.

Humans have a lengthy period of physical dependence in comparison to other species. All human beings develop themselves, and, according to Montessori, nobody should interrupt this process. [28] Montessori called the “spiritual embryo” humanity’s “most precious treasure.” [29] She viewed the embryo as the only source for future improvement in society and education, something that other species did not have. In fact, Montessori believed that rather than the adult creating the child, it is the child that creates the adult. [30]

  Montessori did not believe that evolution is complete. She believed that humans are created “to evolve the cosmos” not to simply enjoy the world.[31] In examining this idea, one would think Montessori was suggesting that humans must not live in a completely structured world, where everything is previously planned and developed. Instead, people must go beyond the everyday activities and what is expected of them and construct new, unexpected creations and conceptions.

  Montessori further noted that one’s role in humanity is to construct a “supra-nature” – “a social, cultural, and technological extension of nature that calls forth ever greater dimensions of human creativity and understanding.” [32] Montessori believed that humans are capable of taking God’s plans and making them realities. Montessori did, however, note that our technological and material knowledge has far outweighed our psychological, moral, and spiritual, so it is imperative to even out this imbalance.[33] It appears that what she means by this is that students must be stimulated to enhance their ability to acknowledge their thoughts, be able to distinguish between right and wrong, and connect with their emotions. It seems that Montessori would not want children to be overloaded with work that they could not absorb; rather, she would want her students to become well-rounded individuals who were developed psychologically, emotionally, morally, socially, and intelligently.

IV. Theory of Learning: What is learning? How are skills and knowledge acquired?

  Montessori believed that learning was the process in which children interacted with their environment to gain knowledge and understanding about their surroundings.[34]

The “absorbent mind” is Montessori’s view as to how children take in knowledge at an early age. An “absorbent mind” is one where the child learns from its feelings and surroundings.[35] In today’s society, schools are trying to implement Gardner’s different theories of learning, with the understanding that all children learn differently. Some teachers have even begun to play music, as children read or write, since some children learn better with music. Other teachers provide more visual models in their teaching for those who are dubbed visual/spatial learners. Montessori appeared to be aware that all children absorb knowledge differently. With her method, she hoped to incorporate all childrens’ learning strengths.

Montessori’s idea of “sensitive periods” suggests the transformation of children’s experience as they move through childhood. They adjust more to the environment.

When they are ready to develop certain skills, such as language, they do so by listening and absorbing what they hear. Similarly, when they are ready to illustrate their fine motor skills, they act on their environment and do so.[36] At this time, the parents and teachers must aid in the child’s process of development. She emphasized that young children gain more from concrete play rather than fantasy play. She believed that their senses aid in greater learning at such a young age, rather than their imagination. [37]

Montessori believed that learning activities must represent experiences in the real world so that the children will be better prepared for life after schooling. She also believed that the learning activities should be chosen by the child to illustrate their autonomy and interests. [38] Montessori explained her idea of learning through experience: “An interesting piece of work, freely chosen, which has the virtue of inducing concentration rather than fatigue, adds to the child’s energies and mental capabilities, and leads to self-mastery.” [39] One would imply that Montessori viewed worksheets that require drill and repetition as detrimental to a student’s understanding of material. Through this method, a child can become bored and “fatigued,” as Montessori said. [40] An activity, on the other hand, which engages the attention and incorporates the interests of the children, can keep the students motivated and capable of learning through their own experiences.

Most children, with the possible exception of those with specific disabilities, are to be treated as their own individuals separate from each other and adults. Self-motivation is one way a child learns.[41] The activities targeted for the children must also be well-developed and easily understood so that the child can engage in the task without much difficulty. Creativity should be fostered for children to learn and become independent thinkers. Meaningful activities help most children develop.[42] One might conclude that according to the Montessori Method of education, an atmosphere of trust, respect, and acceptance is helpful in a child’s development. When beginning a new job, people must exhibit these traits of trust and respect, so it is critical to implement them at an early age.

Montessori’s theory has been criticized as being empiricist in nature because she puts such high importance on the environment’s role in a child’s education. [43] Rather than emphasizing imagination and the construction of knowledge, she instead thinks it is most beneficial for the children to learn through their senses and the environment.[44] In Montessori’s method, she does not prefer “free play” or “fantasy play;” rather, she wants the children to learn through concrete activities, where they must interact with the environment and learn through their senses. [45] Most children can learn from observing the people around them, and this requires observation and interaction. [46]

V. Theory of Transmission: Who is to teach? By what methods? What will the curriculum be?

The Montessori Method has a quite different approach to education than typical methods of education. Educators and parents are to aid their children in development and learning processes; however, children also learn through their own senses, intuition, and decisions.[47] While the teacher is important, she does not take on the lead role:

It is the environment that educates, not the teacher directly; more precisely, it is the child’s inherent formative energies, finding material in the environment to act upon purposefully, that calls or brings forth (the genuine meaning of the word “educate”) the child’s true nature. [48]

It was Montessori’s belief that children are natural learners. Montessori suggested that children learn in groups of a three-year span. For instance, birth to three years of age, three years old to six years old, six years old to nine years old, and so on. She emphasizes the competence of children as being able to make their own decisions and learn from them.[49]

According to Montessori, in order to develop a beneficial curriculum, it is necessary to observe the children in the environment. [50] The curriculum should include exercises for skill development and accumulation of information. Children choose activities that they feel will help them learn. A child must be interested in an activity in order to learn anything. [51] Montessori also believed that it is important to establish an area for the children to be able to interact in their own world, where interaction with others and the environment can aid in their learning. Montessori wanted teachers to emphasize language development, social interaction, and sensory learning. Montessori emphasized learning through all five senses. [52]

The Montessori Method can be used in home schooling as long as the parents do not interrupt the child’s concentration while learning. In school, only a trained Montessori teacher can implement the Montessori Method. [53]

  Because of her observation that people have greater knowledge in material and technology [54], she thought it was imperative that children gain a greater psychological, spiritual, and moral understanding. [55] Therefore, Montessori would not choose the “factory” method of schooling. She believed that those schools that neglect teaching students’ values are damaging to the children. She believed that once the children become adults they are unable to effectively deal with particularly challenging moral decisions because they have been ill-prepared in school. [56] This viewpoint would suggest that she would want her school operated like a “temple,” a moral community. However, much of Montessori’s Method is focused on the roles of the parent, teacher, and the child; therefore, her schools operate much like a “town meeting,” with the child having the most important role.

VI. Theory of Society: What is society? What institutions are involved in the educational process?

Montessori said, “All things are part of the universe, and are connected with each other to form one whole unity.” [57] She strongly believed that each individual had something to offer to the larger society. [58] By fulfilling one’s functions and capabilities, each person can contribute to each other and the betterment of the world as whole. [59]

While Montessori is a Catholic and an educator, her views are widely respected by diverse groups of people. Members of the Jewish, Hindu, Muslim, and Buddhist communities revere her work. [60] There are religious Montessori schools; however most Montessori schools are separate from any religion. Not all Montessori schools are private; about 200 Montessori public schools exist in the United States and Canada. [61]

Montessori’s view of a society, therefore, is one that includes all people, with each person having his or her own important role.

VII. Theory of Opportunity: Who is to be educated? Who is to be schooled?

Montessori believed that everyone should be educated. [62] Since she viewed society as individuals who connect to help each other learn [63], then it seems logical to gather that Montessori believed that every person is entitled to be educated. The Montessori Method is used to help all children reach their fullest potential at their own pace; therefore, all children, including the gifted and those with learning disabilities can learn from this method. [64] Students of varying abilities can all learn from each other in the classroom.

The multiage grouping allows children to be placed appropriately so nobody feels too far ahead or behind when learning. While there are more methods of teaching for ages three to six, the Montessori Method extends to ages beyond early childhood. Most Montessori teaching is done up to age 15, with more methods for the younger ages; however, there are some Montessori high schools that exist. Montessori schooling may end once students graduate from high school; however, Montessori believed that education is a gift that all people should be given. [65]

Montessori wanted all children to have an opportunity in school, so, in some ways, she would agree with the “No Child Left Behind” Act. However, it also seems that she would have wanted the children placed in their own comfortable settings, where they could most benefit according to their abilities. Therefore, while this act was not issued while she was alive, it seems she would disagree with the idea of inclusion but agree that all children should have an opportunity in schooling.

VIII. Theory of Consensus: Why do people disagree? How is consensus achieved? Whose opinion takes precedence?

  Since Montessori was exiled from Italy by Fascist leader Benito Mussolini for not transforming the children into soldiers [66], it seems clear that Montessori was not greatly concerned with consensus. She wanted to do whatever she thought best benefited children. By giving into Mussolini, she would have become a puppet to a higher power. Perhaps, if her school were run like a factory, she would have had the same views as Mussolini, where everything is structured and discipline is necessary. However, Montessori strongly stuck to her beliefs and values in how she thought schools should be run. Her refusal to abide by Mussolini’s orders illustrates her bravery and her faith in her methods of teaching.

  In a Montessori school, the roles of the parent, teacher, and child are all important in order for the children to acquire the best education. [67] Simply learning from structured lesson plans, without room for creativity, will stultify the children’s learning. Children must have freedom within a structured environment. [68] The parent and teacher are responsible for stimulating the children; however, the children have the most important role, for they learn from observing and interacting with their own senses and the environment. [69]

  Montessori, in her method of teaching, primarily wanted to emphasize that the child is the most important figure in education, and the environment is the most beneficial tool for learning. With her method, children can effectively learn and understand material through experimenting and interacting with their environment.

REFERENCES

Enright, Marsha. “Foundations Study Guide: Montessori Education.” The Atlas Society. 1997. <http://ios.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=48&h=44>.

“Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm

“Maria Montessori.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori>.

Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm

“Montessori Method.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori>.

Olaf, Michael. “FAQ’s: Frequently Asked Questions.” Montessori: The International Montessori Index. 2008. Michael Olaf Montessori Company. 17 February 2008. <http://www.montessori.edu/FAQ.html>.

FOOTNOTES

[1] “Maria Montessori.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori>.

[3] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[4] “Maria Montessori.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori>.

[5] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[6] “Maria Montessori.” Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori>.

[7] ibid., 2

[8] idem.

[9] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[10] “Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm.

[11] ibid., 2

[12] Enright, Marsha. “Foundations Study Guide: Montessori Education.” The Atlas Society. 1997. <http://ios.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=48&h=44>.

[13] idem

[14] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[15] Enright, Marsha. “Foundations Study Guide: Montessori Education.” The Atlas Society. 1997. <http://ios.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=48&h=44>.

[16] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[17] Enright, Marsha. “Foundations Study Guide: Montessori Education.” The Atlas Society. 1997. <http://ios.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=48&h=44>.

[18] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[19] Enright, Marsha. “Foundations Study Guide: Montessori Education.” The Atlas Society. 1997. <http://ios.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=48&h=44>.

[20] Idem

[21] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[22] Enright, Marsha. “Foundations Study Guide: Montessori Education.” The Atlas Society. 1997. <http://ios.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=48&h=44>.

[23] “Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm.

[24] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[25] idem

[26] “Montessori Method.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori>.

[27] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[28] ibid., 5

[29] ibid., 6

[30] “Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm.

[31] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[32] ibid., 4

[33] ibid., 5

[34] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[35] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[36] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[37] ibid., 2

[38] Olaf, Michael. “FAQ’s: Frequently Asked Questions.” Montessori: The International Montessori Index. 2008. Michael Olaf Montessori Company. 17 February 2008. <http://www.montessori.edu/FAQ.html>.

[39] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[40] idem.

[41] idem.

[42] Olaf, Michael. “FAQ’s: Frequently Asked Questions.” Montessori: The International Montessori Index. 2008. Michael Olaf Montessori Company. 17 February 2008. <http://www.montessori.edu/FAQ.html>.

[43] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[44] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[45] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[46] “Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm.

[47] “Montessori Method.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori>.

[48] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[49] “Montessori Method.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montessori>.

[50] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[51] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[52] Olaf, Michael. “FAQ’s: Frequently Asked Questions.” Montessori: The International Montessori Index. 2008. Michael Olaf Montessori Company. 17 February 2008. <http://www.montessori.edu/FAQ.html>.

[53] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[54] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

[55] “Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm.

[56] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[57] idem.

[58] “Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm.

[59] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[60] ibid., 3

[61] “Maria Montessori.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori.

[62] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[63] “Frequently Asked Questions.” Pakistan Montessori Council. 2007. http://www.montessori.edu.pk/Montessori%20Method.htm.

[64] “Maria Montessori.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori.

[65] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[66] “Maria Montessori.” Wikipedia: The Free Encylcopedia. March 2008. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori>.

[67] Miller, Ron. “Nourishing the Spiritual Embryo: The Educational Vision of Maria Montessori.” Paths of Learning. 2008. <http://www.pathsoflearning.net/articles_Montessori.php>.

[68] Enright, Marsha. “Foundations Study Guide: Montessori Education.” The Atlas Society. 1997. <http://ios.org/showcontent.aspx?ct=48&h=44>.

[69] Modic, Terri. “Montessori Method.” Montessori Children’s Community. 2006. American Montessori Society. 17 February 2008. http://www.montessorichildrenscommunity.org/MontessoriMethod/index.htm.

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